Supporting a moratorium on the development and use of lethal autonomous weapons.
Throughout history, people have continually researched, developed and deployed new technology for the purposes of war.
Pope John Paul II, addressing the United Nations, reminded us: “Research and technology must always be at the service of man”.70 Yet, too often, we have witnessed the consequences when ethical principles are relegated to an afterthought. The devastating impact of “chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, as well as antipersonnel landmines and cluster munitions, are just a few dramatic examples.”71
For this reason, the Church has long supported international frameworks to regulate the use of such weapons and affirms the importance of upholding the respective treaties amid today’s ‘piecemeal third world war.’72
Speaking after the use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria, Archbishop Gabriele Caccia, as Apostolic Nuncio to the United Nations, stated that such atrocities “point to the continued relevance of instruments prohibiting their use and possession […] more than a century after the use of chemical weapons in the First World War, the nations of the world should be completely rid of them and should be pursuing steps that strengthen the implementation of legal measures for effective compliance in this regard.”73
The Holy See has similarly worked towards enforcement of the ban on landmines, collaborating with non-governmental organisations and Bishops’ Conferences across the world,74 as well as supporting the Convention on Cluster Munitions.75 Likewise, it has consistently supported the Biological Weapons Convention to guarantee “that the application of biological sciences remains solely dedicated to the improvement of health and development.”76
Through supporting these endeavours in our own context, encouraging the UK to fulfil its obligations under such treaties, as well as assisting in their universal application and enforcement, we can contribute towards the universal Church’s mission of ensuring that technology is deployed at the service of peace.
Efforts must not, however, remain limited to upholding existing international frameworks. There is also an imperative to consistently develop new safeguards and agreements. For example, the Holy See was an important actor in negotiations which led, in 2022, to the international political declaration on protecting civilians from the use of explosive weapons in populated areas. Speaking upon the adoption of the declaration, Mgr Julien Kaboré, as head of the Holy See’s delegation, reflected that it “represents an important step forward in protecting the most precious gift we have received, that is, human life.”77
It is also essential to address emerging technological developments in the field of weaponry. In 2013, Archbishop Silvano Tomasi, as the Holy See’s representative to the UN in Geneva, called for consideration “in addition to international law and the law of war, to [be given to] the humanitarian and ethical implications of the use of weaponized drones”, emphasising that they “like any other weapon – are and should always be subject to the rules and moral principles these juridical instruments impose.”78
He went on to outline a series of specific challenges presented by the exponential increase in the deployment of this technology, including the need for processes to ensure greater transparency and accountability. While drones often appeal to governments based on their precision, capacity for targeted killings, and avoiding the deployment of troops into theatres of conflict, they do not remove risk or moral responsibility. There is a clear risk to those on the ground, including civilians, and an undeniable line of responsibility from politicians down to the drone operators.
Archbishop Tomasi also warned about “the lack of ability for pre-programmed, automated technical systems to make moral judgments over life and death, to respect human rights, and to comply with the principle of humanity”, observing that “these questions will grow in relevance and urgency as robotic technology continues to be developed and utilized.”79
This has been borne out in recent years with uncrewed drones increasingly incorporating artificial intelligence, being programmed to identify and attack targets without the need for further human intervention. For example, a report from the UN concerning conflict in Libya noted that “lethal autonomous weapons systems were programmed to attack targets without requiring data connectivity between the operator and the munition”.80 Such developments are deeply troubling because a weapons system can “never be a morally responsible subject”81 nor can it truly “think, feel, decide or be accountable” for its actions.82
Reaffirming this position in 2023, Archbishop Fortunatus Nwachukwu, as the Holy See’s representative to the UN in Geneva, warned that “we are witnessing the proliferation and a growing use of such technologies in various conflicts which are becoming ‘playgrounds’ for the testing of more and more sophisticated weapons”, citing in particular “the increased and widespread use of armed drones, including kamikaze and swarm drones.”83
Considering this, the Church calls for a legally binding international framework which would ensure “adequate, meaningful and consistent human supervision over weapon systems”.84 This would mean that any system must firstly be managed by a human operator to ensure compliance with international law and broader moral responsibilities, recognising that application of these requires an understanding of contexts and nuances which cannot be subsumed into algorithms. Secondly, they should have such input from a human at every stage of research, development, and use. And thirdly, they should never have the capacity to contradict what the operator has prescribed.
This call has been echoed by the UN Secretary General in the New Agenda for Peace which recommends multilateral negotiations towards “a legally binding instrument to prohibit lethal autonomous weapons systems that function without human control or oversight, and which cannot be used in compliance with international humanitarian law, and to regulate all other types of autonomous weapons systems.”85
Some aspects of lethal autonomous weapons systems may be judged to reduce the worst excesses of conflict. For example, they may allow for better precision and fewer civilian casualties. They may also mitigate the role of fear or vengeance in decisions taken on the battlefield. However, these considerations do not override the paramount importance of ensuring such adequate, meaningful and consistent human supervision. As the Holy See has set out: “Decisions over life and death inherently call for human qualities, such as compassion and insight, to be present. While imperfect human beings may not perfectly apply such qualities in the heat of war, these qualities are neither replaceable nor programmable.”86 Therefore, until a binding treaty ensuring human supervision is negotiated, the Church also supports enforcing a moratorium on the development and use of lethal autonomous weapons systems.87
In our own context we are called to encourage support for such a treaty and at the same time urge our government not to invest further resources in the development or production of lethal autonomous weapons systems. The Holy See explicitly rejects the logic often employed by states that “if we don’t develop this technology, somebody else will”, explaining that the “development of complex autonomous weapon systems is likely out of the reach of smaller states or non-state actors. However, once such systems are developed by larger states, it will not be extremely difficult to copy them […] the inevitable widespread proliferation of these weapon systems will fundamentally alter the nature of warfare for the whole human family.”88
We also have a responsibility to encourage the redeployment of technological developments “toward an ultimate horizon which is not based merely on the criteria of utility or efficiency, but on furthering the common good of humanity”,89 taking up Pope Francis’ call to put them “at the service of another type of progress, one which is healthier, more human, more social, more integral”.90 Developments such as the use of drones by the World Food Programme to deliver critical humanitarian assistance when infrastructure has been damaged, or for identifying routes that can be taken by aid convoys, are powerful examples of using such technology for the universal common good.91
The Church supports the establishment of a new International Organisation for Artificial Intelligence to facilitate “the fullest possible exchange of scientific and technological information for peaceful uses and for the promotion of the common good and integral human development.”92
Another important consideration is the need to provide appropriate pastoral care for those engaged in the deployment and operation of weaponised drones and other uncrewed weapons systems. In his 2013 address, Archbishop Tomasi emphasised that people in these roles “have not necessarily been given such training or adequate time to deliberate as they make decisions on the screen which affect life and death thousands of kilometres away [and that this] has ethical implications for the civilian cost at the receiving end of the drones, but it also adversely affects the operator.”93 The Church has an important tradition of chaplaincy to the armed forces and we must continue to incorporate relevant ethical considerations around the use of new technology into this ministry.
In Laudato Si’, Pope Francis challenges the tendency to view every technological advance as a positive step, writing that: “Science and technology [is] not neutral”.94 We must therefore continue to judge future developments in weaponry, including expansions into cyberwarfare and the possible deployment of military technology into outer space, through the prism of Catholic social teaching.
Addressing the United Nations, Archbishop Caccia emphasised that: “Every State has a responsibility to safeguard the peaceful nature of outer space as a steward for present and future generations”.95 The Holy See is active in the UN working group on reducing space threats. It has used this forum to encourage building upon international instruments, such as the Outer Space Treaty, in order to ban verifiably the placement of weapons into space and the development of anti-satellite weapons, thereby protecting outer space as a peaceful environment and helping to prevent a future arms race.96
The Holy See also underscores such responsibilities in the field of cyberspace, emphasising that the actions of States “must respect the inherent dignity found in each human person”.97 This was reaffirmed by Cardinal Peter Turkson, when Prefect of the Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development, stating that “there is an urgent need for states to establish a normative legal framework to develop a culture of responsibility as well as an ethics of fraternity and peaceful interactions in the context of cyberspace. But more desirable, and to the mutual benefit of all, would be the consideration of the cyberspace as a neutral ground or common heritage of humankind: a global common, preserved from tools designed to harm people directly or indirectly or to destroy national or individual assets.”98
Finally, it is necessary to situate the Church’s response to emerging military technology in the context of our wider disarmament efforts. While responding to the specific ethical concerns presented by developments such as drones, lethal autonomous weapons systems, cyberwarfare and the possible weaponisation of outer space, we retain a focus on the ultimate goals of General and Complete Disarmament, as well as establishing a culture of peace
Pope Francis reminds us that: “where progress, ethics and society meet […] faith, in its perennial relevance, can provide a valuable contribution.”99 This is especially relevant in the field of weaponry.
Through our prayer, public witness, and pastoral service we seek to:
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70 Pope John Paul II, Message to the Second Special Session of the UN General Assembly Devoted to Disarmament, 7 June 1982.
71 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems: position Paper of the Holy See submitted to the CCW, 20 December 2021.
72 Pope Francis, Homily at the Military Memorial in Redipuglia, 13 September 2014.
73 Archbishop Gabriele Caccia, Address to the UN General Assembly on Nuclear Weapons, WMDs And Disarmament, 13 October 2021.
74 Pope John Paul II, Message to the First Conference on the Anti-Personnel Landmine Ban Treaty, 22 November 2004.
75 Holy See, Declaration Attached to the Instrument of Ratification to the Convention on Cluster Munitions, 21 November 2008.
76 Archbishop Fortunatus Nwachukwu, Statement to the 9th Review Conference of the Biological Weapons Convention, 29 November 2022
78 Archbishop Silvano Tomasi, Statement to the Annual Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 14 November 2013.
79 Ibid.
80 United Nations, Letter from the Panel of Experts on Libya established pursuant to resolution 1973 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council, 8 March 2021.
81 Archbishop Ivan Jurkovič, Statement to the 2018 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, 9 April 2018.
82 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, December 2021.
83 Archbishop Fortunatus Nwachukwu, Statement to the 2023 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 6 March 2023.
84 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, December 2021.
85 Secretary-General António Guterres, A new Agenda for Peace, July 2023.
86 Archbishop Silvano Tomasi, Statement to the Meeting of Experts of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 13 May 2014.
87 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, December 2021.
88 Archbishop Silvano Tomasi, Statement to the Meeting of Experts of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 13 May 2014.
89 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, December 2021.
90 Pope Francis, Laudato Si’ [112] , 2015.
91 World Food Programme, Using drones to deliver critical humanitarian aid, [Accessed 26 March 2024].
92 Holy See, Translating Ethical Concerns into a Normative and Operational Framework for Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, December 2021.
93 Archbishop Silvano Tomasi, Statement to the Annual Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 14 November 2013.
94 Pope Francis, Laudato Si’ [114], 2015.
95 Archbishop Gabriele Caccia, Statement to working group II on Outer Space at the UN Disarmament Committee, 5 April 2023.
96 Archbishop Fortunatus Nwachukwu, Statement to the third session of the open- ended working group on reducing space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours, 3 February 2023.
97 Archbishop Gabriele Caccia, Thematic Discussion on other disarmament measures and international security in the First Committee of the 77th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, 24 October 2022.
98 Caritas in Veritate Foundation, Human Fraternity in Cyberspace: ethical challenges and opportunities, December 2021.
99 Pope Francis, Address to the Members of the Pontifical Academy for Life, 20 February 2023.
We have a responsibility to respond to Pope Francis’ call to counter the logic of fear and foster a climate of trust and dialogue.
The principles of Catholic social teaching in relation to weapons remain consistent.
